![]() Recent advances in this area include: (i) the move from "narrow-spectrum" or "fact-based" inoculation to "broad-spectrum" or "technique-based" immunisation, with the hope that people become relatively more immune to a whole range of misinformation and (ii) the application of active versus passive inoculation, wherein people generate their own "antibodies" through, for example, games such as GoViral!", in which players step into the shoes of a misinformation producer. For example, research has found that inoculating people against conspiratorial arguments about vaccination before (but not after) exposure to a conspiracy theory effectively raised vaccination intentions. Prophylactic (preventative - called "prebunking") - The idea is that, by pre-emptively forewarning and exposing people to severely weakened doses of misinformation (coupled with strong refutations), people can cultivate cognitive resistance against future misinformation.Research question 3: Can we inoculate or immunise people against misinformation? Researchers are exploring interventions that are: Provide more accurate population-level estimates of exposure to misinformation by (i) capturing more diverse types of misinformation and (ii) linking exposure to fake news across different kinds of traditional and social media platforms.Outline with greater clarity the conditions under which "exposure" is more or less likely to lead to "infection", including the impact of repeated exposure, the micro-targeting of fake news on social media, contact with superspreaders, the role of echo chambers, and the structure of the social network itself and.Based on the analysis of the body of research on "spreading", the paper recommends that future research: ![]() However, studies indicate that "exposure does not equal persuasion (or 'infection')". A major issue is the existence of echo chambers, in which the flow of information is often systematically biased toward like-minded others. Research question 2: How does misinformation spread in social networks? Researchers have adopted models from epidemiology, such as the susceptible-infected-recovered (SIR) model, to measure and quantify the spread of misinformation in online social networks. Define, develop, and validate standardised instruments for assessing general and domain-specific susceptibility to misinformation.Better integrate accuracy-driven with social, political, and cultural motivations to explain people's susceptibility to misinformation and.Having discussed emerging evidence for both theories in turn, the paper recommends that we: Individual differences have given rise to two competing overarching theoretical explanations: (i) The "inattention" account, which argues that people are committed to sharing accurate content, but the context of social media simply distracts people from making news-sharing decisions that are based on a preference for accuracy and (ii) the "identity-protective" or "motivated cognition" account, which argues that the types of commitments that people have to their affinity groups is what leads them to selectively endorse media content that reinforces deeply held political, religious, or social identities. Although illusory truth can affect everyone, research has noted that some people are still more susceptible to misinformation than others. Research question 1: What factors make people susceptible to misinformation? As outlined here, one finding that helps explain why people are susceptible to misinformation is the "illusory truth" effect: Repeated claims are more likely be judged as true than non-repeated (or novel) claims. This review provides readers with a conceptual overview of recent literature on misinformation - defined here as false or misleading information masquerading as legitimate news, regardless of intent - along three major theoretical dimensions of the infodemic: susceptibility, spread, and immunisation (boosting psychological immunity to misinformation). ![]() For example, studies find that exposure to misinformation can undermine vaccination uptake. Long before this particular pandemic, the spread of misinformation posed a threat to public health. In early 2020, the overabundance of COVID-19 information, particularly false and misleading information, led the World Health Organization (WHO) to declare a worldwide "infodemic". "The spread of misinformation has undermined public-health efforts, from vaccination uptake to public compliance with health-protective behaviors." ![]()
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